LECTURE#9

The Age of Empresses or the age of favorites? The law of succession to the throne (1722) & the palace revolutions throughout the 18th c.. Catherine I. Peter II. Ann. Ivan VI. Elizabeth. Peter III. Catherine II. The age of favorites. Wars & Russian expansion towards the Black Sea (1787 – 1791). Russian colonization of Asia & expeditions to Alaska. The E.Pugachov rebel (1773-1775). The epoch of the Enlightened Monarchy. G. Potemkin as a favorite statesman of Catherine the II. The story of A. Radishev.

Catherine the Great

The Youth of German Princess.

One of the most interesting, industrious and powerful personages to grace the pages of history during the eighteenth century is Catherine II, Empress of all the Russias. Historians have not always been kind to her memory, and all too often one reads accounts of her private life, ignoring her many achievements. The stories of her love affairs have been vulgarized and can be traced to a handful of French writers in the years immediately after Catherine''s death, when Republican France was fighting for its life against a coalition that included Russia.

Catherine was born Sophia Augusta Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst on April 21, 1729 in Stettin, then Germany, now Poland. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, a minor princeling among the fragmented principalities in Germany, had married the much younger Princess Johanna of Holstein-Gottorp. The house of Holstein could lay claim to the crown of Sweden. Instead of making a more brilliant marriage, her family had arranged a match to this Prince of modest position. After Sophie was born, her mother soon became bored with the provincial life of Stettin, where her husband was a high ranking officer in the Prussian Army. As Johanna was related to many noble families in Germany, she took every opportunity to travel to the courts of Zerbst, Hamburg, Brunswick, Kiel and even Berlin.

Years before, Johanna''s brother Karl August of Holstein-Gottorp had gone to Russia to marry the Princess Elizabeth Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great. Before the wedding took place, the Prince died of small pox, leaving Elizabeth heart-broken. Her sister Anna had married the Duke Karl Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. Three months after giving birth to a son, Peter Ulrich, Anna died of tuberculosis. When Peter Ulrich was ten years old, his father died, and the claims to the throne of Sweden passed to his son. As the only surviving male descendent of Peter the Great, he was also potentially heir to the throne of Russia. In November 1741, Elizabeth seized the throne with the help of the Imperal Guards, overthrowing the Empress Anna Leopoldovna, who was regent for the infant Ivan VI. This line of succession stemmed from Peter the Great''s older half-brother and co-ruler from 1682-1696.

The Empress Elizabeth formally declared her nephew Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp heir to the throne, brought him to St. Petersburg and changed his name to Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Tsar Peter III. Peter was now 14 years old and it was time to look for a bride for him. Elizabeth had always remembered the family of her dead fiancee with fondness, and having heard Princess Sophia''s name from the Prussian ambassador, she made a decision.

The elder branch of the Anhalt''s had died out, and Prince Christian August and his brother became reigning princes of Anhalt-Zerbst. It was here in Zerbst, on the first day of January 1744, when a courier arrived with an invitation for the Princess Johanna to come to St. Petersburg, "accompanied by the Princess, your elder daughter." Sophie''s father was not asked to come. He was known for his strong Lutheran beliefs, and it would be necessary for Sophie to change to the Orthodox religion, if she were to marry the heir to the throne.

A Winter Journey

The family left Zerbst on January 10, 1744. They stopped in Berlin to see King Frederick II. A few days later Sophie said good-bye to her father in Schwedt on the river Oder, then she and her mother were on their way. The journey was long and exhausting in the middle of the winter. When they reached the border, they were met by sledges the Empress had sent. They travelled the rest of the way in luxury. At the arrival in St. Petersburg they learned that the court was at the time in Moscow. So, after a short rest, they again set out, because they wanted to be there for the Grand Duke''s birthday on February 10. The Empress Elizabeth seemed to have taken an instant liking to Sophie. The Grand Duke was glad to see them, after all Johanna was his father''s first cousin. Sophie noticed a certain frailty about Peter, and he was prone to all sorts of illnesses. He was both physically and emotionally retarded, having grown up without a mother and with a father who had not spent much time with him. He was a child who had never known love and affection. Sophie also noticed that he occupied himself with childish games, that he was very home sick, but above all he hated the country over which he was destined to reign. He was a firm believer in the Lutheran faith and loved everything Prussian. King Frederick was his hero.

A Wedding in St.Petersburg

Sophie herself started to learn the Russian language and to study the Orthodox religion, which of course pleased the Empress. On June 28 Sophie was received into the Church in a great ceremony. The next day the bethrothal took place and Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst became Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alexeyevna. In Russia the father''s first name is added to that of the child. The Empress had chosen her own mother''s name, Catherine, and Alexis because it sounded Russian. Catherine was now the second highest ranking lady in the country.

Shortly after, Peter contracted the measles, then he started to show all the symptoms of small pox. The Empress herself nursed him during his illness, which left him pockmarked and with very little hair. He knew how unattractive he was, which eroded the little confidence he had. Catherine thought him to be a most pitiful creature and it was with dismay that she looked towards her wedding day. By now Peter drank excessively and his behavior became crude. The court was back in St. Petersburg, and after several postponements, the wedding took place on August 21, 1745 in the Cathedral of Kazan. The marriage however was not consumated, because of Peter''s retarded physical development caused by his many illnesses. It was at this time that Catherine, who had never felt more isolated, wrote: "I should have loved my new husband, if only he had been willing or able to be in the least lovable. But in the first days of my marriage, I made some cruel reflections about him. I said to myself: If you love this man, you will be the most wretched creature on Earth. Watch your step, so far as affection for this gentleman is concerned, think of yourself, Madame."

The Birth of the Tsarevich Paul

The young couple settled down, but the marriage was a miserable failure. Princess Johanna had returned to Zerbst. Catherine occupied herself with reading everything she could lay her hands on. She discovered satisfaction, as she moved from the works of Plato to the works of Voltaire. Her interest in the intellect caused an even greater estrangement between herself and Peter, who began to avoid her. He took pleasure in telling her how much he admired other women. Catherine started to feel contempt for his childish occupations. The years passed and no heir was in sight. This of course irritated the Empress, who by now thought it must be Catherine''s fault, if she cannot make herself attractive to her husband. She also ordered physical examinations by a Physician. It was discovered that a small surgical intervention would enable Peter to have normal marital relations. This done, Catherine finally, on September 20, 1754, gave birth to a son, whom the Empress named Paul. Elizabeth carried the baby off to her apartments. There he would remain, as long as the Empress lived. After the birth of her son, whom she was not allowed to see for months, and then only after confronting the Empress, a change came over Catherine. She trusted no one. She did help Peter with his Holstein Affairs and, at the same time, befriended the British Ambassador, Sir Charles Hanbury-Williams. Sir Charles arranged secret "loans" for her from England, as she was always short of funds.

The Seven Year War put an end to this friendship. England was on Prussia''s side against Russia, and the English Ambassador was called home to London. Peter was devastated because he could not envision a War against his idol King Frederick. During the War, Count Schwerin, an aide-de-camp to the King of Prussia was brought to St. Petersburg as a Prisoner of War. Two Russian officers accompanied this celebrated prisoner, who was installed in a house not far from the Imperial Palace. One of these Russian officers was a young lieutenant, Gregory Orlov, who had been the hero at the battle of Zorndorf. There were five Orlov brothers, all officers in the Imperial Guard. Of the five Gregory was certainly the most charming. They were not of high birth, but to Catherine they were the embodiment of the Russian Army and, as a result, Catherine fell in love with Gregory. Peter had formed a close relationship with Elizabeth Vorontsova, the niece of the Vice-Chancellor. She was Peter''s mistress for all to see. It is possible that Peter felt superior to this lady, who was homely and had very crude manners.

The Death of the Empress and the Reign of Peter III

On Christmas day 1761, the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died. The reign of Peter III had begun. Catherine mourned the Empress sincerely. One of Peter''s first official actions dealt with stopping the hostilities against Prussia. On April 24, 1762 the new Tsar signed a treaty with the King of Prussia. All occupied territories would be restored to Prussia. He sent a personal letter to the King, assuring him of his friendship. On his finger he wore a ring with a portrait of his idol. The Russian Army had suffered great losses during the Seven Year War. Peter alienated the Army further by trying to impose Prussian discipline and even Prussian uniforms. Amid all this, Catherine heard rumors that Peter intended to dispose of her and make Elizabeth Vorontsova his wife.

A handful of people, among them the Orlov Brothers and some friends, as well as Princess Dashkova, a sister of Peter''s mistress, plotted to overthrow the new Tsar. Princess Dashkova, was a young, married lady, very cultured and the complete opposite from her sister. She was also a fervent admirer of Catherine. With all that Peter had done to alienate the Army, the danger in which Catherine found herself, makes it perhaps easier to understand what happened next. On June 27th one of the co-conspirators was arrested. Captain Passek had made insulting remarks about the new Tsar while drinking. The others were afraid of what he may say under torture. The decision was made to act at once.

Peter Deposed

On the morning of June 21st Catherine was asleep in the summer house Mon Plaisir at Peterhof. She had been summoned by Peter to attend the feast he had planned for his name day, but the Emperor and his entourage was still at Oranienbaum, another estate of the Imperial family. On this morning in June, Alexis Orlov had slipped past the Holstein Guards and stepped through the open French windows of Catherine''s bedroom and awakened her. He quickly told her the plans. Catherine dressed in a few minutes in her simple black mourning dress, and then they were on the way in Orlov''s hired hack. Down the road they were met by Gregory Orlov in another hired carriage. It was before eight o''clock in the morning when they arrived at headquarters of the Ismailovsky regiment. Catherine stepped from her carriage to face the soldiers, small and fragile, her mourning dress yellow from the dust of the road. The men knew her by sight as the Grand Duchess or as the Empress, but never like this. Catherine spoke: "I have come to you for protection. The Emperor has given orders to arrest me. I fear he intends to kill me." She said nothing more. The soldiers rushed to kiss her hands, the hem of her dress, and called her their savior. The regimental chaplain, Father Aleksei Razumovskii, came with a cross and started to take the oath. The regimental commander, Count Cyril Razumovsky, appeared and made his way over to Catherine and knelt at her feet. The Ismailovsky ''s were hers, and from that moment on, really, so was Russia.

From there they all made their way to the Semenovsky Barracks. Catherine had again driven in her ordinary carriage. More soldiers came to meet them, shouting "Vivat!" Drums rolled, finally the procession reached the Cathedral of Kazan, where they found the church filled with clergy, awaiting her. Catherine walked down the long aisle to the altar, and there she took the oath as Empress and Sole Autocrat. With bells ringing and people shouting, Catherine then proceeded in her shabby carriage to the new Winter Palace, where members of the Senate and the Synod were waiting to swear allegiance. Count Panin, her son''s tutor, brought her the child at once. Princess Dashkova finally made her way through the crowds to join Catherine. During the night a manifesto was printed and then distributed to the people in the streets.

"We, Catherine II, It has been clearly apparent to all true sons of our Russian Fatherland that the State of Russia has been exposed to supreme danger by the course of recent events. First, our Greek Orthodox Church has been so shaken, that it was exposed to the most extreme peril: that a heterodox faith might be substituted for our ancient orthodoxy. Second, the glory of Russia, which was carried to such heights by her victorious army at the cost of so much bloodshed, has been trampled underfoot by the conclusion of peace with our most mortal enemy (Frederick II), and the Fatherland had been abandoned to complete subjection, while the internal order, on which the unity and welfare of our entire country depend, has been completely disrupted. For these reasons we have found ourselves compelled, with the help of God, and in accordance with the manifest and sincere desire of our faithful subjects, to ascend the throne as sole and absolute sovereign, whereupon our loyal subjects have solemnly sworn us an oath of allegiance."

Where was Peter? He had left Oranienbaum to go to Peterhof. With him was his mistress Elizabeth Vorontsova, the Prussian Ambassador Baron von Goltz, the Chancellor and many ladies in court attire. A secret messenger had arrived from St. Petersburg with the news that Catherine had been proclaimed Empress. Peter was urged to take his Holsteiners and march on the capital. He refused such confrontation, but he was finally persuaded to go to Kronstadt, a fortified island in the gulf of Finland approximately 12 miles west of St. Petersburg, where Peter had gathered troops for the war he had planned against Denmark. Catherine had already secured Kronstadt through Admiral Talysin, who had been dispatched earlier in the day.

While Peter was sailing towards Kronstadt, Catherine donned a borrowed uniform of the Semenovsky regiment. Before the assembled regiments she swung herself into the saddle astride of the white thoroughbred that had been led up for her. She left a note for the Senate: "Gentlemen of the Senate, I am leaving the city at the head of the army to bring peace and security to the throne. With complete confidence, I entrust to your care my supreme power, the Fatherland, the people and my son." They rode into the northern night, company after company. Finally they stopped at an wretched inn at Krasny Kabak. All needed a rest. At five o''clock in the morning she was informed that someone had come to talk. She found herself face to face with Chancellor Vorontov, who had come on Peter''s request. The Chancellor knelt down and swore allegiance. There was no contest between this self-assured woman and the feeble puppet he had left behind. Then they all rode towards Peterhof. Unwilling to fight, Peter signed the act of abdication. The few sentries were easily disarmed. Not a drop of blood had been shed. By order of the Empress, Peter was taken to a nearby estate in the village of Ropsha. There he was held under surveillance. The following day, Sunday, June 30, 1762, Catherine made a triumphal entry into St. Petersburg, where she was greeted with bells ringing, artillery salvos and wild acclamations. Six days later she received the news that Peter had died. He apparently had argued with his guards. It was Alexis Orlov who confessed to her the demise of Peter. Catherine seemed very distressed about his death. Now she had blood on her hands, and she was in no position to punish the culprits. She owed her crown to the Orlovs. On July 7, 1762 she issued a manifesto about Peters death. In accordance with her orders, Peter was interred at the Alexander Nevsky monastery. Catherine did not attend the funeral.

The Reign of Catherine II

Not many people at European courts believed that Catherine would last long. Another German without a drop of Russian blood in her veins, and the true heir, Peter the Great''s grandson murdered? Catherine herself knew how fragile her position really was. She kept the statesmen who had been active under Empress Elizabeth and under Peter. She even kept Chancellor Vorontzov. Nikita Panin was put in charge of foreign affairs.

When Catherine met the Senate for the first time at the Summer Palace, she was stunned by the realities of the country''s financial and social situation. The chief portion of the army was still abroad and had not been paid for eight months. She wrote: "The fleet was abandoned, the army in disarray, the forts crumbling...". The budget showed a deficit of 17 million rubles, in a country of only 100 million people. No one knew what the revenues of the treasury were. Everywhere people complained about corruption, extortion and injustice. "How many towns are there in Russia?" she asked the Senate. No one knew. She suggested looking at the map. There was no map. Catherine took 5 rubles from her purse and sent a clerk to the Academy of Sciences to buy the latest map of Russia. The clerk returned and the towns were counted. At that moment Catherine left the sheltered world of a civilized court and stepped into Russia as it was: ignorant, superstitious, disorganized, unruly, often diseased and to a European appallingly backward. She decided to concentrate on increasing Russia''s wealth, and as Russia was primarily agricultural, she began with the land. But first she had herself crowned on Sunday, September 22 in the old Assumption Cathedral in the heart of Moscow''s Kremlin. The Archbishop of Novgorod celebrated the mass with her.

After her return to St. Petersburg, she turned to the affairs of state. She worked relentlessly from early morning to late at night. She decided that the overriding task would be to improve techniques in the agricultural regions. She sent experts to study the soil and propose suitable crops. She made grants to landowners to learn the ways which were being devised in England, and to buy machines that were being invented there. She encouraged introduction of modern methods to breed sheep and cattle, and she promoted horse-breeding. To work the under populated areas, she saw that more workers were needed. Catherine turned to advertisements in foreign newspapers, mostly German, inviting settlers and offering attractive terms. The response was excellent. Thousands took to the road Catherine and her mother had traveled twenty years before.

Next she turned to mining and sent geologists to access the ores from Russia''s seemingly barren lands. She founded the first School of Mines in St. Petersburg, complete with an underground mine, where trainees could learn the trade under realistic conditions. She also paid special attention to the mining of silver. Furs had long been a resource of Russian wealth and she encouraged the existing trade in Siberia. As early as 1762 she decreed that anyone could start a new factory, except in the two capitals, which were overcrowded. Soon, enterprising state peasants were running large textile plants. A whole range of industries began to emerge: linen, pottery, leather goods and furniture. Here she also called on experts from abroad to help set up more sophisticated ventures. She turned mostly to England. She brought over Admiral Knowles to build warships and dockyards. Workmen from the Tula steelworks were sent to England to study the making of barometers, thermometers and mathematical instruments. Catherine founded factories for textiles outside the Moscow region, for linen in the area of Yaroslov and for leather and candles in the central Volga region. The total number of factories during her reign was increased from 984 to 3161.

Catherine brought in German, Austrian and French craftsmen to update the Imperial porcelain works. By the simple act of abolishing export duties, she achieved remarkable results. Russia''s primary export were timber, hemp, flax, raw leather, furs, linen, cloth and iron. After the Treaty of Kyakhta was signed in 1768, camel caravans were soon passing to and from Manchuria. Russia exported furs, leather and linens to China, and imported cottons, silks, tobacco, silver and tea, among other commodities from China. As early as 1765 three quarters of the Empress Elizabeth''s debt was repaid, and a budget deficit had been turned into a surplus.

A decree issued by Catherine in 1764 to all governor-generals instructed them to take accurate census, map their provinces and report on agriculture and trade. They were to build and repair roads and bridges, oversee the fighting of fires and ensure that orphanages and prisons were properly administrated. She doubled the number of civil servants in the provinces by 1767. When the center of the town of Tver burned down, she referred the re-building to a commission set up for this purpose. A plan was drawn up which served for all future towns. The town of Tver was the model: The main street ran into two big squares, one for administrative buildings, the other for shops. To reduce the risk of fire, all side streets were to be 75 feet wide and the town itself had a diameter of about 2.6 miles. Many new towns were built on this scale during Catherine''s reign.

Catherine now turned to education. There were few schools in Russia. She started to convert a convent in St. Petersburg into a boarding school for girls, the Smolny Institute. She sent for Daniel Dumaresq, who had been a Fellow at Oxford and installed him as a member of the Educational Committee. In 1786, Catherine issued the Statue for Schools for all of Russia. Every district town was to establish a minor school with two teachers, every provincial town a major school with six teachers. She did not tackle the founding of Universities, as she knew that Russia lacked qualified teachers for such institutions. She did, however, increase the number of grants for the study abroad.

When she looked at public health at the beginning of her reign, she found the same lack as in education. She knew that the worst killer among children was small-pox. Dr. Thomas Dimsdale, who held a medical degree from Aberdeen, Scotland, had published a paper on inoculating for the small-pox. She brought him to St. Petersburg, where he inoculated Catherine on October 12, 1768. She had volunteered to set an example. She developed some pustules and a sore throat, but returned to her duties three weeks later. Dimsdale declared the vaccination a success and many followed her example. Catherine bought houses in Moscow and St. Petersburg, which Dr. Dimsdale operated as vaccination hospitals. In the year of 1763 Catherine had founded Russia''s first College of Medicine, consisting of a director, a president and eight members. The College was instructed to train Russian doctors, surgeons and apothecaries to serve in the provinces. Peter the Great had built military hospitals; Catherine founded hospitals for civilians. When she re-organized the provinces in 1775, she decreed that each provincial capital must have a hospital, each county with a population between 20,000 and 30,000 should have a doctor, a surgeon, an asst. surgeon and a student doctor. Catherine''s efforts prompted her gentry to follow her example. Baron von Kleichen founded a 300 bed hospital in St. Petersburg, overlooking the Fontanka Canal. In the 1790''s the College added 250 more beds. These are some of the visible results of Catherine''s domestic reforms. There would be many more during her long reign, but one can get an idea of her tireless striving for improvements.

Catherine was also an enthusiastic collector of the arts. She built up the Imperial art collection from a dozen works to an incredible 3926. She commissioned the building of Palaces and the Hermitage. Her great love for Russia and pride in her adopted country comes through to us when we look at this beautiful collection of paintings done by the world''s greatest masters, acquired not for personal indulgence, but as an effort to make Russia respected. She had a theater built where operas and plays were performed by artists invited to Russia. Catherine herself tried her hand at writing several operas, which were performed there. Later in life she wrote stories for her grandchildren.

When her son Paul was old enough she arranged a marriage to yet another German princess. Paul''s wife died in childbirth. In 1776 he married Princess Dorothea of Wuertemberg, who was re-named Maria Federovna. A year later, Catherine became the doting grandmother to Alexander, whom she raised, just as Elizabeth had done with Paul. Her son had many children, so the succession was not a worry for Catherine.

It was her great regret during her long reign that she was unable to abolish serfdom. She realized that she would alienate the nobility with such an act, who depended on the labor of the serfs for their great estates. She did, however, issue several decrees for the humane treatment of the serfs. It is plain that Catherine hoped that her grandson Alexander would be in a stronger position to free the people. As she so often wrote to Baron von Grimm: "in the time of Monsieur Alexander....". Catherine continued throughout the years to help the underprivileged and the poor.

After she had distanced herself from Gregory Orlov, another important personage appeared on the scene. Gregory Potemkin was a man of exceptional ability and she soon entrusted him with important affairs of State. For years he toiled in the south and his industry is impressive. Through him, Catherine was able to annex the Crimea from the Turks, a region of great importance. In the 1780''s Potemkin was the most important man in Russia. Catherine''s Empire now reached from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Historians tell us of the possibility that Catherine may have married Potemkin in a secret ceremony. It is unfortunate that no solid proof exists today of such a marriage. We do know that for some years they had a loving relationship. We also know, that like Orlov, she made Potemkin a Prince of the Empire. Up to his death he was deeply devoted to Catherine.

Catherine conducted much of her foreign Policy by letter, writing to her fellow Sovereigns, notably Frederick of Prussia. She kept up a lively correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot and Baron von Grimm. She commissioned a French artist Etienne Falconet to sculpture a statue of Peter the Great. This statue can be seen in St. Petersburg, the Tsar sitting on his horse on a huge rock, his face turned towards the Neva, with one hand pointing to the city he founded. Catherine linked her name with Peter''s, one can read on the base: "Petro Primo--Catherina Secunda".

In 1783 Princess Dashkova was appointed first Director of the Academy of Sciences, then President of a Russian Academy. It was the first time that a lady held such important posts. It should be pointed out, that the appointments were not made because Catherine owed her much, but because the Princess was an educated lady with a great ability for these tasks. Catherine bought Diderot''s library and Voltaire''s books after his death. In all, the Imperial library was increased from a few hundred volumes to thiry-eight thousand.

Catherine possessed majesty without being pompous. She was neither cold nor inhuman. Over the years she lived through hurtful criticism, rebellion, war and estrangement from her son, whom she thought incapable of ruling Russia. She was a woman alone without her own family, except her beloved grandchildren. Although she had a deep love for her adopted country, it is entirely conceivable that at times she must have felt a certain longing for the place where once her cradle stood. She suppressed it, to be sure, because of her elevated position. But we see that she often refers to her former governess Babette Cardel, whom she had loved and from whom she learned much in her sheltered childhood. We can also read how devastated she was when as Grand Duchess she had learned of the death of her beloved father. One wonders how much guilt she must have felt at that time, because she had gone against her father''s wishes and changed her religion. As Empress, she showered her grandsons with much love, but one senses a void she tried to fill with the many relationships she formed with men. Perhaps we misunderstand her many attachments. We realize that she craved affection. It is lonely at the top, but Catherine loved to teach and she had much to give. We can see from her many letters to Baron von Grimm, that she took pride in the education of her young protégés. Perhaps what many biographers interpreted as promiscuous behavior, was nothing more than her filling the lonely hours by sharing her vast intellect with the young men she deemed worthy of her attention. Not all of them, only some. This seems possible especially in her later years. We read that she was hurt by the actions of some of her young friends. We also see that she supported them when she found out they had formed attachments elsewhere and when they wished to marry the lady of their choosing. Her behavior at such times is not that of a woman scorned. She had long and lasting relationships with Orlov and Potemkin, and it seems that she was capable of faithfulness. There is no doubt that Catherine''s reputation suffered because of the many accounts of her affairs. Perhaps we should put these attachments into the proper context. In the overall picture, all these stories about Catherine the woman cannot diminish her many achievements as Catherine the Empress.

Russia owes her much. After a long reign of thirty-four years, Catherine died of a stroke on the 17th of November, 1796. The next day the British Ambassador Charles Whitworth wrote:" Last night... this incomparable princess finished her brilliant career." History knows her as Catherine The Great, a title she was offered during her life time and rejected. "I leave it to posterity to judge impartially what I have done" she said at the time; and Catherine has done well. She deserves the title, because she earned it.

http://members.tripod.com/~Nevermore/CGREAT.HTM

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How did Catherine the Great Die?

I have received a few inquiries about the so-called "horse story". I have been studying every aspect of the life of Catherine the Great. One eminent historian explained how such a preposterous story could have started: apparently the anti-monarchy forces in France circulated such rubbish soon after Catherine''s death throughout Europe with the intention of discrediting her many achievements.

Catherine had become the enemy of France after she had voiced sharply her outrage when word had reached St. Petersburg that the king and queen had been executed. She ordered the court to declare 6 weeks of mourning on Oct. 27, 1793. This proclamation was in memory of Marie Antoinette, who had been killed a few months after her husband, King Louis XVI. She denounced these evil forces very vocally. She also welcomed many French refugees to St. Petersburg. Each of them had to swear allegiance to the Imperial Crown of Russia. She was very anxious not to transport the seeds of revolution to her own country.

Catherine had relationships with several guardsmen younger than herself, but she was neither vulgar nor licentious. She was a lady of high intellect, a tireless worker for the good of Russia, and above all, she was human and she was kind. She was a legend in her own time. I have been familiar with her story for many years. Her behavior throughout her exceptional life was at all times understandable. No other ruler had her many fine qualities.

It is regrettable that some people seem to take pleasure in vulgarity, but thankfully they are small in number. They do not belong in the category of the many who have a sincere desire to learn the true facts of history. Once only, but for all times, I would like to make it clear that Catherine suffered a stroke at the age of 67, inside her water closet. She was discovered by her maid, lying on the carpet against her commode. The door had prevented her from stretching out her legs. Her eyes were closed, her face congested. There was foam on her lips and a rattle in her throat. Others rushed in when they heard the cries of her maid. They combined their many efforts to lift her heavy body, but staggered. They pulled a leather mattress from a sofa to the floor. There she stayed while doctors tried to bleed her. But they knew it was the end. She died several hours later without regaining consciousness, stretched out by now in her canopied bed.

What became of Catherine''s third son, Alexsei?

When the Empress Elizabeth died at Christmas, 1761, Catherine was in her sixth month with Gregory Orlov''s child. He was born in secrecy on April 11, 1762 in a part of the Palace away from the mainstream of the activities. Her marriage to Peter had of course completely broken down by then and he was flaunting his mistress for all to see.

Her chamberlain Vasilii Shkurin and his wife took the child away to their home in a beaver skin ( a bobyor ) He was two months old when Catherine came to the throne. He was returned to the Palace and enjoyed a normal childhood with both Catherine and Gregory in parental roles. She bestowed noble rank on the foster parents. Orlov used the child in a way, trying to push Catherine towards marriage. She thought long and hard about it and took Panin''s advice who told her that a Madame Orlov would never be allowed to rule. She did not dare to marry Gregory because Gregory''s brother Alexis was implicated in the demise of Peter.

When Alexsei Gregorevich was a teenager he traveled for ten years abroad. In 1787/88 she appointed Zavadovkii to take over the guardianship of her son and square away the huge amounts of debts the boy had accumulated when he was abroad. After his return to St. Petersburg he was given the surname of Bobrinskoi and Catherine purchased an estate for him. She also enrolled him in the Noble Cadet Corps under the watchful eye of Ivan Betskoi. When he graduated in 1782 she sent him on a tour of Russia and he traveled to Poland and Italy. Then he settled in Paris.

After her death in November, 1796, Paul had his half-brother recalled and gave him the rank of Count. He was well received at court. He must have married because one author says "the Bobrinskys were very proud of their origin". I have not been able to find any information on when he died.

How many lovers did Catherine the Great have? (The Men in Catherine''s Life)

1752: Serge Saltuikov
A chamberlain at the young court of the Grand Duke and Duchess, he belonged to one of the noblest and oldest families in Russia. When assigned to this post he had been married for two years to one of the Empress Elizabeth’s ladies-in-waiting. He was a charming and women found him attractive. Seeing that Catherine was abandoned by her husband, he dared to approach her. After eight years of a virgin marriage, at age twenty-three, she gave herself to Saltuikov. He is most likely the father of Catherine’s first child, Grand Duke Paul, although around the same time Catherine’s husband Peter had for the first time marital relations with her after a surgical intervention. Catherine had fallen hard for this charming rogue, who soon tried to distance himself from her because of fear and also because he grew tired of this clandestine affair. The Empress sent Saltuikov to the Swedish court at the end of September 1754. Catherine was very distressed and consoled herself with reading.

1755: Stanislav Poniatowski
England sent a new Ambassador, Sir Charles Hanbury-Williams to St. Petersburg. In his entourage was a charming and cultured young man, Count Stanislav Augustus Poniatowski, a member of Poland’s grand families, the Czartoryskis. Three years younger than Catherine, he fell in love with the young Grand Duchess and would love her all his life. Catherine was more levelheaded after the affair with her first love, but succumbed to his persistent charm. The affair lasted five years and produced Catherine’s second child, a girl, whom the Empress called Anna in honor of her late sister, the mother of Catherine’s husband. Anna died at age 2 in 1759.

1760: Gregory Orlov
Orlov, a hero of the battle of Zorndorf, was one of two Russian officers assigned to accompany an important prisoner of war, the Prussian Count Schwerin to St. Petersburg. In all there were five Orlov brothers in the Imperial Guards, but Gregory was certainly the most charming. He came from a modest background and had little education. Count Schwerin was treated most respectfully and one evening Grand Duke Peter gave a reception for him. Orlov had accompanied Schwerin to the reception and was on guard duty at the palace. Catherine, who just had a painful scene with her husband, rushed in tears to the window and saw Orlov glancing up in admiration. From this moment on she was determined to make his acquaintance. He was not high up enough to move in Imperial circles, so Catherine had to find another way to meet him. On May 16th, 1760 she started her affair with Gregory Orlov which was to last for 13 years. Her second son was born on April 11, 1762. He was called Alexis Bobrinski and was carried out in a beaver skin from a remote part of the palace by trusted friends. (Peter had succeeded his aunt and flaunted his mistress, whom he intended to marry after Catherine had been disposed of.) Orlov was instrumental in helping Catherine seize the throne on June 28, 1762. Catherine would not marry him and by 1773 their relationship was ending.

1773: Alexander Vasilchikov
In September 1773 Catherine took Vasilchikov as the new favorite. He was a twenty-eight year old officer, considerably younger than Catherine, even-tempered and shy. Orlov had been sent to peace talks with Sultan Mustapha’s envoys to Foscani, in what is now Romania. Although he told Catherine he wanted to marry his young cousin Catherine Zinovieva before he left, when he heard of the new favorite, he came rushing back to St. Petersburg. Catherine had made Gregory Orlov a Prince of the Empire, now she severed her attachments to Vasilchikov and restored Orlov to his former status. She gave him many gifts, but their sexual relationship had ended. Orlov had given Catherine a 199-carat diamond, which she had mounted on the Imperial sceptre. In 1776 Catherine helped Orlov to marry his first cousin, a marriage not normally permitted by the church.

1774: Gregory Potemkin
Potemkin was born in 1739. He chose a military career, and as quartermaster of the Horse Guards had helped Catherine to the throne in 1762. She had made him a groom-in-waiting and sometime in 1774 she entered into a personal relationship with him. Although lazy, Potemkin had a brilliant mind, which appealed to Catherine. He was cocky, jealous and wrapped up in himself, yet Catherine adored this man. She turned to him with her problems and he certainly loved her. Some historians think they may have married at the end of 1774 in St. Sampson’s church, in a secret ceremony. There is, however, no solid proof. Potemkin began to press his political views on Catherine. She listened, but would not let love interfere in ruling the country. They soon quarreled a lot and Catherine began to feel that she and Potemkin were slowly destroying each other. She finally made the decision to send him away, first to the Polish provinces and then to the Black Sea. Potemkin, fully aware that in his absence he was sure to lose his status and authority at court, decided that he would from now on choose Catherine’s favorites. With his agreement she took her next lover.

1776 : Peter Zavadovsky
Potemkin left for an inspection tour and in February 1776 Catherine entered into a relationship with Peter Zavadovsky, which lasted only until April. He was dismissed with many gifts. Potemkin had returned to St. Petersburg and lived in a mansion connected to the Imperial Palace. Some time during these years Catherine had made Potemkin a Prince of the Empire. He remained the most important man in her life, although their intimacy had become aloof. At any moment he would have to leave again on business for Catherine. By appointing her favorites in his absence, he had unwittingly done great harm to Catherine’s reputation.

1777: Simon Zorich
Zorich, handsome, a major in the Hussars, had been made lieutenant colonel and inspector of all light troops, was of Serbian descent. He remained the favorite for eleven months. He began to resent Potemkin’s hold over Catherine and challenged him to a duel. Neither was seriously wounded, but it was the end of Simon Zorich as favorite.

1778: Ivan Rimsky-Korsakov
This man belonged to the family that was to produce the famous composer. He too was a talented musician, playing the violin and had a good singing voice. About fifteen months or so later, Catherine found him in the arms of Countess Bruce. She dismissed both of them with generous provisions. Once again, Potemkin chose as a favorite a man he knew he could trust.

1779: Alexander Lanskoy
Lanskoy was the youngest of Catherine’s favorites. Catherine almost had a maternal feeling for this young man, as her letters to Grimm show. She was proud of him, praised his love for art and she seemed to be genuinely fond of him. She had at last found someone who loved her. She had experienced many disappointments, but here was a young man who seemed happy and content in her company. Four years went by. Lanskoy went out riding and fell, developed first chest pains from the fall, then contracted diphtheria. He died on June 14, 1784. Catherine was devastated. She buried him in Sophia and built a church over his grave. In Tsarskoe Selo Park she had a funeral urn placed in his memory, inscribed with the words "To my dearest friend." Potemkin waited eight months for Catherine to get over her grief and in February 1785 he suggested a new favorite.

1785: Alexander Ermolov
He was thirty years old, tall, blonde and little is known about him. After some disagreement, he was dismissed eighteen months later.

1786: Alexander Dmitriev-Mamanov
He was one of Potemkin’s own aides-de-camp, had a good education, spoke French and Italian. He accompanied Catherine on her tour of the Crimea. After four years he admitted to Catherine that he wanted to marry Darya Scherbatova, one of her ladies-in-waiting. Catherine hastily arranged the marriage, as the bride was expecting a child. The young couple was given an estate with peasants, to which they departed to await the birth of the child.

1789: Plato Zubov
In the spring of 1789 a young guard’s officer took up duty at Tsarskoe Selo. Later that summer he was appointed personal aide-de-camp to the Empress. Catherine seemed happy with Zubov. She wrote to Grimm that he took good care of her and was good company. He remained with Catherine until the day she died in November 1796.

A Short Summary

Much has been written about Catherine and some very intelligent people have quoted as many as 300 lovers to me. For this reason alone I have listed the men in her life, as researched by the esteemed authors under "Works cited." In all she had 2 husbands and 11 favorites. The Empress Elizabeth chose the first, Catherine chose five herself and the rest were chosen by Potemkin.

Any reasonable person would question these "hundreds of lovers." How could she have found time to look after the business of the nation? I would like to mention here that a man would have been praised and admired for his virility! There is no doubt that Potemkin harmed her reputation with his actions. But she went along with him, did as he wanted, and it was after all her very own business. Her achievements as Empress had very little to do with her personal life. But I find it sad that even today some people take pleasure in belittling such a great lady.

http://members.tripod.com/~Nevermore/ctgfaq.htm

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Modern History Sourcebook: Catherine the Great

Catherine II (l762-1796), a German princess who became Empress of Russia after disposing of her ineffectual husband was one of the most successful European monarchs. She followed Peter the Great in seeing Russia (which had been part of an Asian Empire for centuries) as European Power. Among her other achievements, added some 200 000 square miles to the territory of the Russian empire.

The following letter was written by a French diplomat in Moscow.

From Letter of Baron de Breteuil
This princess seems to combine every kind of ambition in her person. Everything that may add luster to her reign will have some attraction for her. Science and the arts will be encouraged to flourish in the empire, projects useful for the domestic economy will be undertaken. She will endeavor to reform the administration of justice and to invigorate the laws; but her policies will be based on Machiavellianism; and I should not be surprised if in this field she rivals the king of Prussia. She will adopt the prejudices of her entourage regarding the superiority of her power and will endeavor to win respect not by the sincerity and probity of her actions but also by an ostentatious display of her strength. Haughty as she is, she will stubbornly pursue her undertakings and will rarely retrace a false step. Cunning and falsity appear to be vices in her character; woe to him who puts too much trust in her. Love affairs may become a stumbling block to her ambition and prove fatal for her peace of mind. This passionate princess, still held in check by the fear and consciousness of internal troubles, will know no restraint once she believes herself firmly established.

From A Source Book for Russian History, G. Vernadsky, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), Vol. 2.

In 1767 Catherine summoned an assembly to draft a new code of laws for Russia and gave detailed instructions to the members about the principles they should apply. (The proposed code never went into effect.) The code drips with "enlightend language": the reality of government in Russia was rather different.

From Catherine II. Proposals for a New Law Code

6. Russia is an European State.

7. This is clearly demonstrated by the following Observations: The Alterations which Peter the Great undertook in Russia succeeded with the greater Ease, because the Manners, which prevailed at that Time, and had been introduced amongst us by a Mixture of different Nations, and the Conquest of foreign Territories, were quite unsuilable to the Climate. Peter the First, by introducing the Manners and Customs of Europe among the European People in his Dominions, found at that Time such Means as even he himself was not sanguine enough to expect....

8. The Possessions of the Russian Empire extend upon the terrestrial Globe to 32 Degrees of Latitude, and to 165 of Longitude.

9. The Sovereign is absolute; for there is no other Authority but that which centers in his single Person, that can act with a Vigour proportionate to the Extent of such a vast Dominion.

10. The Extent of the Dominion requires an absolute Power to be vested in that Person who rules over it. It is expedient so to be, that the quick Dispatch of Affairs, sent from distant Parts, might make ample Amends for the Delay occasioned by the great Distance of the Places.

11. Every other Form of Government whatsoever would not only have been prejudicial to Russia, but would even have proved its entire Ruin.

12. Another Reason is: That it is better to be subject to the Laws under one Master, than to be subservient to many.

13. What is the true End of Monarchy? Not to deprive People of their natural Liberty; but to correct their Actions, in order to attain the supreme Good.

14. The Form of Government, therefore, which best attains this End, and at the same Time sets less Bounds than others to natural Liberty, is that which coincides with the Views and Purposes of rational Creatures, and answers the End, upon which we ought to fix a steadfast Eye in the Regulations of civil Polity.

15. The Intention and the End of Monarchy, is the Glory of the Citizens, of the State, and of the Sovereign.

16. But, from this Glory, a Sense of Liberty arises in a People governed by a Monarch; which may produce in these States as much Energy in transacting the most important Affairs, and may contribute as much to the Happiness of the Subjects, as even Liberty itself....

33. The Laws ought to be so framed, as to secure the Safety of every Citizen as much as possible.

34. The Equality of the Citizens consists in this; that they should all be subject to the same Laws.

35. This Equality requires Institutions so well adapted, as to prevent the Rich from oppressing those who are not so wealthy as themselves, and converting all the Charges and Employments intrusted to them as Magistrates only, to their own private Emolument....

37. In a State or Assemblage of People that live together in a Community, where there are Laws, Liberty can only consist in doing that which every One ought to do, and not to be constrained to do that which One ought not to do.

38. A Man ought to form in his own Mind an exact and clear Idea of what Liberty is. Liberty is the Right of doing whatsoever the Laws allow: And if any one Citizen could do what the Laws forbid, there would be no more Liberty; because others would have an equal Power of doing the same.

39. The political Liberty of a Citizen is the Peace of Mind arising from the Consciousness, that every Individual enjoys his peculiar Safety; and in order that the People might attain this Liberty, the Laws ought to be so framed, that no one Citizen should stand in Fear of another; but that all of them should stand in Fear of the same Laws....

123. The Usage of Torture is contrary to all the Dictates of Nature and Reason; even Mankind itself cries out against it, and demands loudly the total Abolition of it.

180. That Law, therefore, is highly beneficial to the Community where it is established, which ordains that every Man shall be judged by his Peers and Equals. For when the Fate of a Citizen is in Question, all Prejudices arising from the Difference of Rank or Fortune should be stifled; because they ought to have no Influence between the Judges and the Parties accused.

194. (1.) No Man ought to be looked upon as guilty, before he has received his judicial Sentence; nor can the Laws deprive him of their Protection, before it is proved that he has forfeited all Right to it. What Right therefore can Power give to any to inflict Punishment upon a Citizen at a Time, when it is yet dubious, whether he is Innocent or guilty?

250. A Society of Citizens, as well as every Thing else, requires a certain fixed Order: There ought to be some to govern, and others to obey. 251. And this is the Origin of every Kind of Subjection; which feels itself more or less alleviated, in Proportion to the Situation of the Subjects.

252. And, consequently, as the Law of Nature commands Us to take as much Care, as lies in Our Power, of the Prosperity of all the People; we are obliged to alleviate the Situation of the Subjects, as much as sound Reason will permit.

253. And therefore, to shun all Occasions of reducing People to a State of Slavery, except the utmost Necessity should inevitably oblige us to do it; in that Case, it ought not to be done for our own Benefit; but for the Interest of the State: Yet even that Case is extremely uncommon.

254. Of whatever Kind Subjection may be, the civil Laws ought to guard, on the one Hand, against the Abuse of Slavery, and, on the other, against the Dangers which may arise from it.

269. It seems too, that the Method of exacting their Revenues, newly invented by the Lords, diminishes both the Inhabitants, and the Spirit of Agriculture in Russia. Almost all the Villages are heavily taxed. The Lords, who seldom or never reside in their Villages, lay an Impost on every Head of one, two, and even five Rubles, without the least Regard to the Means by which their Peasants may be able to raise this Money.

270. It is highly necessary that the Law should prescribe a Rule to the Lords, for a more judicious Method of raising their Revenues; and oblige them to levy such a Tax, as tends least to separate the Peasant from his House and Family; this would be the Means by which Agriculture would become more extensive, and Population be more increased in the Empire.
From Documents of Catherine the Great: The Correspondence with Voltaire and the Instructionof l767 in the English Text of l768, W. F. Reddaway, trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931), pp. 216-17, 219, 231, 241, 244, 256 258.

From Decree on Serfs (1767)

Although Catherine liked to use the liberal rhetoric of the Enlightenment, she actually ruled Russia with a heavy hand. Her government enacted this decree f- in the same year that the instructions about the proposed law code were issued.

The Governing Senate. . . has deemed it necessary to make known > that the landlords'' serfs and peasants . . . owe their landlords proper submission and absolute obedience in all matters, according to the laws r that have been enacted from time immemorial by the autocratic forefathers of Her Imperial Majesty and which have not been repealed, and which provide that all persons who dare to incite serfs and peasants to disobey their landlords shall be arrested and taken to the nearest government office, there to be punished forthwith as disturbers of the public tranquillity, according to the laws and without leniency. And should it so happen that even after the publication of the present decree of Her Imperial Majesty any serfs and peasants should cease to give the proper obedience to their landlords . . . and should make bold to submit unlawful petitions complaining of their landlords, and especially to petition Her Imperial Majesty personally, then both those who make the complaints and those who write up the petitions shall be punished by the knout and forthwith deported to Nerchinsk to penal servitude for life and shall be counted as part of the quota of recruits which their landlords must furnish to the army. And in order that people everywhere may know of the present decree, it shall be read in all the churches on Sundays and holy days for one month after it is received and therafter once every year during the great church festivals, lest anyone pretend ignorance.

From A Source Book for Russian History, G. Vernadsky, trans. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), Vol. 2, pp. 453-454.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/18catherine.html