| LECTURE#13 |
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The 19thc. thaw: 1861 emancipation of the serfs. Democratizing Russian society. The legal reforms of 1864 the new jury. The new system of local government. The military reforms of 1874. The failed rural invasion of 1870s. The Peoples Will & the assassination of Alexander II. Westernizes & Slavophiles. Russia on the new crossway.
A Biography of Alexander II ~ written by Jeff Schmidt Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov was born on April 29, 1818 in the city of Moskva. He was the eldest son of Nicholas I and experienced the same education as many young Russians from similar, wealthy families. He was taught a wide variety of subjects with a special emphasis on European languages. It was during this time he became an officer of the Guard. Since he was heir to the throne, he was eventually made the director of the military schools in Russia. To his fathers dismay, Alexander did not share the same love for the army as his father did. Some believe the reason for this is the influence his tutor, Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky was a humanitarian poet who helped introduce the literature of the German Romantic School to the Russian public. In 1841, Alexander married the daughter of the Grand Duke Louis II of Hesse. Her name was Maria Alexandrovna, and she gave birth to six sons and two daughters. The first was Alexandra Alexandrovna, the second was Nicholas Alexandrovich, Alexander III Alexandrovich, Vladimir, Alexis, Marie Alexandrovna, Serge Alexandrovich, Paul Alexandrovich. Fourteen years later, in 1855, Alexander became the Tsar of Russia. Nicholas I had died and left his son to claim the throne during the Crimean war. Consequently, the first several years of his reign were spent dealing with the war and the eventual peace agreement after the loss of Sevastopol. After the peace treaty was settled, Alexander began a massive movement for reform. Alexander began the reformations of the country due to massive public support towards that direction. For several years, he began making changes concerning the industry and overall commerce of the country. A large number of limited liability companies were allowed to form as the new legislation took hold. During this time, plans for a huge railway network, which would help industry and defensive goals, were being discussed. Alexander II seeing the need to connect Russia with itself and the outside world through his experiences by way of the Crimean war put into action a mass railroad network soon to become the Trans-Siberan Railroad. Immediately, this progress was stopped by the existence of serfdom. Alexander decided to confront this obstacle and sent a letter to certain local governments that had serfdom. This letter praised the patriotic behavior of a certain area that had abolished serfdom. The other governments quickly followed suit and the serfs were freed. On the 3rd of March 1861, the serfs freedom was made official by the signing of an emancipation document. Soon after, other reforms were made in Russia that helped to benefit the society. For the next several years, Alexander was able to stay out of European affairs and continued to improve the country. This changed, however, when Russia experienced the crisis of 1875. The Russo-Turkish war erupted as a result and was eventually concluded with the Congress of Berlin in 1878. The outcome at this conference went incredibly against Russia and caused widespread hatred for the Tsar. Thus, numerous assassination attempts occurred and eventually, after signing a new constitution for Russia, Alexander II was killed by a bomb thrown in his sleigh on March 13, 1881. _______________________________________________________________ Reforms of Alexander II ~ written by Matt Thompson from: http://www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us/~bsilva/projects/russia/Alex_II/Reforms%20of%20Alexander%20II.htm Alexander II ruled as Czar of Russia from 1855 to his assassination in 1881. In this reign, Alexander created several reforms. These domestic reforms seemed to serve Russia for the best, but were met with the opposite reaction of assassination attempts, and restriction of his own reforms due to nihilistic ideas in political parties that were arising at the time. These reforms, in Alexanders view, was serving the purpose of creating a better army. The Crimean War was occurring when the throne was passed from Nicholas I to Alexander. The embarrassing defeat of the Russian army happened through incompetence, corruption, and the use of uneducated and unmotivated serfs as soldiers. The Crimean War caused the realization that Russia was no longer a great military power. Russia''s serf-based economy and army could not compete with the industrialized nations of Britain and France. As this event marked the beginning of his reign, Alexanders goal was to improve the Russian army. He was going to accomplish this through these domestic reforms. One of the main reforms that Alexander focused on to improve the army was the abolishment of serfdom, and the improvement of their lives including education and creation of Zemstvos. Judicial reforms, academic free speech, and relaxation of censorship and travel restrictions also were a part of these reforms. Despite the objections of the nobility, Alexander reasoned the benefits and went forward with abolishing serfdom. "It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below. One of Alexanders most well known reforms was the abolishment of serfdom that earned him the title, Czar Liberator. Serfdom was the system in Russia at the time. Most of the population worked for little wages, if any, for the few nobility and landowners. The serfs did not own land; they just worked it for someone else. These serfs lived in rotten conditions with no education. There only desire was for land. The abolishment of serfdom came with the Emancipation Manifesto on March 3, 1861. The Emancipation Manifesto proposed 17 legislative acts that included the freedom of the serfs. Now, all peasants would be able to buy land from their landlords. The system worked through the advancement of money to the landlords and the recovering of it from the peasants in redemption payments. Alexanders emancipation predated Lincoln''s Emancipation Proclamation by two years. Another reform was the creation of Zemstvos. In 1864, Alexander announced that he was allowing each district to set up one. Zemstvos were local councils with powers to provide services such as roads, schools and medical. However, only the wealthy had the right to be elected as members. Other reforms introduced by Alexander included improved municipal government in 1870 and universal military training in 1874. He also encouraged the expansion of industry and the railway network. These reforms succeeded in building Russia as a better military power, and in the Russo-Turkish War, the Russians succeeded in defeating the Turks. However, these domestic reforms failed in another sense. It improved foreign problems of Russia, such as the army, which was Alexanders goal, yet it failed in the domestic problems. The emancipation didn''t bring on any significant change in the condition of the peasants. In some regions it took peasants nearly 20 years to obtain their land. Many were forced to pay more than the land was worth. By 1900, around 85% of the Russian people lived in the countryside and earned their living from agriculture. The nobility still owned the best land and the vast majority of peasants lived in extreme poverty. As the country became more industrialized, its political system experienced even greater strain. Attempts by the lower classes to gain more freedom caused fears of anarchy and nihilism that were arising with people like Bakunin. As Russia became more industrialized, larger, and far more complicated, the inadequacies of autocratic Czarist rule became increasingly apparent. Liberals and radicals who wanted a parliamentary democracy and the freedom of expression that was enjoyed by most other European states were also not satisfied. In summary, Alexanders reforms did improve the army, but the reaction from the different parties lead to severe rebellion and eventually death for him. Sources: www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RUSromanov.htm www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/chrono2.html www.dur.ac.uk/~dml0www/emancipn.html ______________________________________________________________ Alexander II Emancipation Proclamation of the Serfs By the Grace of God We, Alexander Il, Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, and so forth, make known to all Our faithful subjects: Called by Divine Providence and by the sacred right of inheritance to the throne of Our Russian ancestors, We vowed in Our heart to fulfill the mission which is entrusted to Us and to surround with Our affection and Our Imperial solicitude all Our faithful subjects of every rank and condition, from the soldier who nobly defends the country to the humble artisan who works in industry; from the career official of the state to the ploughman who tills the soil. Examining the condition of classes and professions comprising the state, We became convinced that the present state legislation favors the upper and middle classes, defines their obligations, rights, and privileges, but does not equally favor the serfs, so designated because in part from old laws and in part from custom they have been hereditarily subjected to the authority of landowners, who in turn were obligated to provide for their well-being. Rights of nobles have been hitherto very broad and legally ill defined, because they stem from tradition, custom, and the good will of the noblemen. In most cases this has led to the establishment of good patriarchal relations based on the sincere, just concern and benevolence on the part of the nobles, and on affectionate submission on the part of the peasants. Because of the decline of the simplicity of morals, because of an increase in the diversity of relations, because of the weakening of the direct paternal attitude of nobles toward the peasants, and because noble rights fell sometimes into the hands of people exclusively concerned with their personal interests, good relations weakened. The way was opened for arbitrariness burdensome for the peasants and detrimental to their welfare, causing them to be indifferent to the improvement of their own existence. These facts had already attracted the attention of Our predecessors of glorious memory, and they had adopted measures aimed at improving the conditions of the peasants; but these measures were ineffective, partly because they depended on the free, generous action of nobles, and partly because they affected only some localities, by virtue of special circumstances or as an experiment. Thus Alexander 1 issued a decree on free farmers, and the late Imperial Russian Emperor Nicholas, Our beloved father, promulgated one dealing with the serfs. In the Western guberniias, inventory regulations determine the peasant land allotments and their obligations. But decrees on free farmers and serfs have been carried out on a limited scale only. We thus became convinced that the problem of improving the condition of serfs was a sacred inheritance bequeathed to Us by Our predecessors, a mission which, in the course of events, Divine Providence has called upon Us to fulfill. We have begun this task by expressing our confidence in the Russian nobility, which has proved on so many occasions its devotion to the Throne, and its readiness to make sacrifices for the welfare of the country. We have left to the nobles themselves, in accordance with their own wishes, the task of preparing proposals for the new organization of peasant life, proposals that would limit their rights over the peasants, and the realization of which would inflict on them some material losses. Our confidence was justified. Through members of the guberniia committees, who had the trust of the nobles'' gatherings, the nobility voluntarily renounced its right to own serfs. These committees, after collecting the necessary data, have formulated proposals on a new arrangement for serfs and their relationship with the nobles. These proposals were diverse, because of the nature of the problem. They have been compared, collated, systematized, rectified, and finalized in the Main Committee instituted for that purpose; and these new arrangements dealing with the peasants and domestics of the nobility have been examined in the State Council. Having invoked Divine assistance, we have resolved to execute this task. On the basis of the above mentioned new arrangements, the serfs will receive in time the full rights of free rural inhabitants. The nobles, while retaining their property rights on all the lands belonging to them, grant the peasants perpetual use of their domicile in return for a specified obligation; and, to assure their livelihood as well as to guarantee fulfillment of their obligations toward the government, grant them a portion of arable land fixed by the said arrangements, as well as other property. While enjoying these land allotments, the peasants are obliged, in return, to fulfill obligations to the noblemen fixed by the same arrangements. In this condition, which is temporary, the peasants are temporarily obligated. At the same time, they are granted the right to purchase their domicile, and, with the consent of the nobles, they may acquire in full ownership the arable lands and other properties which are allotted them for permanent use. Following such acquisition of full ownership of land, the peasants will be freed from their obligations to the nobles for the land thus purchased and will become free peasant landowners. A special decree dealing with domestics will establish a temporary status for them, adapted to their occupations and their needs. At the end of two years from the day of the promulgation of this decree, they shall receive full freedom and some temporary immunities. In accordance with the fundamental principles of these arrangements, the future organization of peasants and domestics will be determined, the order of general peasant administration will be established, and the rights given to the peasants and to the domestics will be spelled out in detail, as will the obligations imposed on them toward the government and the nobles. Although these arrangements, general as well as local, and the special supplementary rules affecting some particular localities, estates of petty nobles, and peasants working in factories and enterprises of the nobles, have been as far as possible adapted to economic necessities and local customs; nevertheless, to preserve the existing order where it presents reciprocal advantages, we leave it to the nobles to reach a friendly understanding with the peasants and to reach agreements on the extent of the land allotment and the obligations stemming from it, observing, at the same time, the established rules to guarantee the inviolability of such agreements. This new arrangement, because of its complexity, cannot be put into effect immediately; a time of not less than two years is necessary. During this period, to avoid all misunderstanding and to protect public and private interests, the order actually existing on the estates of nobles should be maintained until the new order shall become effective. Towards that end, we have deemed it advisable: 1. To establish in each guberniia a special Office of Peasant Affairs, which will be entrusted with the affairs of the peasant land communes established on the estates of the nobility. 2. To appoint in every used justices of the peace to solve all misunderstandings and disputes which may arise from the new arrangement, and to organize from these justices district assemblies. 3. To organize Peace Offices on the estates of the nobles, leaving the peasant land communes as they are, and to open volost offices in the large villages and unite small peasant land communes under one volost office. 4. To formulate, verify, and confirm in each village commune or estate a charter which would enumerate, on the basis of local conditions, the amount of land allotted to the peasants for permanent use, and the scope of their obligations to the nobleman for the land as well as for other advantages which are granted. 5. To put these charters into practice as they are gradually approved on each estate, and to put them into effect everywhere within two years from the date of publication of this manifesto. 6. Until that time, peasants and domestics must be obedient towards their nobles, and scrupulously fulfill their former obligations. 7. The nobles will continue to keep order on their estates, with the right of jurisdiction and of police, until the organization of volosts and of volost courts. Aware of the unavoidable difficulties of this reform, We place Our confidence above all in the graciousness of Divine Providence, which watches over Russia. We also rely upon the zealous devotion of Our nobility, to whom We express Our gratitude and that of the entire country as well, for the unselfish support it has given to the realization of Our designs. Russia will not forget that the nobility, motivated by its respect for the dignity of man and its Christian love of its neighbor, has voluntarily renounced serfdom, and has laid the foundation of a new economic future for the peasants. We also expect that it will continue to express further concern for the realization of the new arrangement in a spirit of peace and benevolence, and that each nobleman will realize, on his estate, the great civic act of the entire group by organizing the lives of his peasants and his domestics on mutually advantageous terms, thereby setting for the rural population a good example of a punctual and conscientious execution of state regulations. The examples of the generous concern of the nobles for the welfare of peasants, and the gratitude of the latter for that concern give Us the hope that a mutual understanding will solve most of the difficulties, which in some cases will be inevitable during the application of general rules to the diverse conditions on some estates, and that thereby the transition from the old order to the new will be facilitated, and that in the future mutual confidence will be strengthened, and a good understanding and a unanimous tendency towards the general good, will evolve. To facilitate the realization of these agreements between the nobles and the peasants, by which the latter may acquire in full ownership their domicile and their land, the government will lend assistance, under special regulations, by means of loans or transfer of debts encumbering an estate. We rely upon the common sense of Our people. When the government advanced the idea of abolishing serfdom, there developed a partial misunderstanding among the unprepared peasants. Some were concerned about freedom and unconcerned about obligations. But, generally, the common sense of the country has not wavered, because it has realized that every individual who enjoys freely the benefits of society owes it in return certain positive obligations; according to Christian law every individual is subject to higher authority (Romans, chap. xiii, 1); everyone must fulfill his obligations, and, above all, pay tribute, dues, respect, and honor (Ibid., chap. xi, 7). What legally belongs to nobles cannot be taken away from them without adequate compensation, or through their voluntary concession; it would be contrary to all justice to use the land of the nobles without assuming responsibility for it. And now We confidently expect that the freed serfs, on the eve of a new future which is opening to them, will appreciate and recognize the considerable sacrifices which the nobility has made on their behalf. They should understand that by acquiring property and greater freedom to dispose of their possessions, they have an obligation to society and to themselves to live up to the letter of the new law by a loyal and judicious use of the rights which are now granted to them. However beneficial a law may be, it cannot make people happy if they do not themselves organize their happiness under protection of the law. Abundance is acquired only through hard work, wise use of strength and resources, strict economy, and above all, through an honest God-fearing life. The authorities who prepared the new way of life for the peasants and who will be responsible for its inauguration will have to see that this task is accomplished with calmness and regularity, taking the timing into account in order not to divert the attention of cultivators away from their agricultural work. Let them zealously work the soil and harvest its fruits so that they will have a full granary of seeds to return to the soil which will be theirs. And now, Orthodox people, make the sign of the cross, and join with Us to invoke God''s blessing upon your free labor, the sure pledge of your personal well being and the public prosperity. Given at St. Petersburg, March 3, the year of Grace 1861, and the seventh of Our reign. Alexander . Source: www.dur.ac.uk/~dml0www/emancipn.html ____________________________________________________________________________________ Crimean War ~written by Zack Schwartz The Crimean War of 1854 to 1856 has been considered one of the worst organized wars in history. The contributing sides to this conflict were primarily Russia, England, France, and Turkey. This war resulted in a victory for the alliance consisting of France, Turkey and England. The precipitation of this battle occurred as a result of religious conflicts in Jerusalem and Nazareth. The conflict came about between the French Catholics in that area and the Russian Orthodox monks. The French Catholics at that time had more rights in the religious areas. They were the dominant group and therefore had more access to the different parts of the Holy Land. It was this access that the Orthodox monks wanted. They were frustrated that the French Catholics were in a form of alliance with the Turks and were excluding the Russian Orthodox. As a showing that he was in support of the monks, the Czar of Russia, Czar Nicholas I sent a dignitary to Turkey by the name of Menshikov. Menshikov gave the demands of the Russian government that the monks be given the same rights, if not more than the French Catholics. This meant restoration of Greek rights and a secret alliance and the protection of all orthodox laymen under Turkish rule. This demand was foiled by the English ambassador, Stratford de Redcliffe. Redcliffe made it so that the Turkish would say that they were respecting the rights of the Greek-Russian Orthodox monks but would not actually carry the plan out. The Russians became very frustrated by this situation and Nicholas I sent in troops to the areas of Wallachia and Moldavia. This move proved to be one of the major starting points of the war. However, the primary spark that started the war was the sinking of a Turkish flotilla by the Russian fleet that was in that region. This event triggered tremendous propaganda in England and France, thus triggering an emotional connection to the war. France and England now had their populations behind them to start the war effort. As a result, the French and the English dispatched their expeditionary forces to the region in September 1854. The British troops were under the command of Lord Raglan and the French troops were under the command of General St. Arnaud. They landed on the Crimean Peninsula and marched south. The ultimate goal of the Alliance was to attack and conquer the stronghold of Sevastopol. This place was the center of the Russian military in that region. A victory at Sevastopol would mean a victory in the war. These troops first encountered fighting at a river called the Alma River. This battle, like all the other battles in this war, was incredibly unorganized with both sides making incredible mistakes, costing many lives. At the end of the battle, the Franco-British alliance won. This battle was a major set back to the Russian morale and efficiency. After the battle at the Alma River, the alliance group set up a military base that became the supply route for the entire war effort. This base was called, Balaklavla. It was here that the majority of the alliance fighters were located. The Russians, after being defeated at the River Alma, regrouped and planned a strategy to attack the British, French, and the Turkish at this specified location. The morning of October 25, 1854 brought about the Battle of Balaklavla. This battle was incredibly bloody and was incredibly unorganized. In the end the alliance forces won. With the victory at Blaklavla came the push for Sevastopol. The alliances fought a trench warfare for the remainder of the war. This included fighting in the winter of 1854. This winter was so harsh that the majority of deaths of soldiers were of starvation and illness. Near the end of this winter, however, the alliance soldiers had made it to Sevastopol and had finally conquered it. The victory at Sevastopol led to the end of the war and the Treaty of Paris. Sources: 1.) www.brittanica.com 2.) www.encyclopedia.com 3.) www.bartleby.com 4.) Rempel, Gerhard. http://mars.whec.edu/`grempel/courses/russia/lectures/19crimeanwar.html. 5.)www.geocities.com/Broadway/Alley/5443/crimwar1.htm _________________________________________________________________________________ State Entry Exit Combat Forces Population Losses Bulgaria 1877 1878 40 000 3 000 000 15 000 Montenegro 1876 1878 25 000 350 000 5 000 Russia 1877 1878 1 200 000 97 000 000 120 000 Serbia 1876 1878 40 000 6 000 000 5 000 Turkey 1876 1878 400 000 26 000 000 10 000 The last Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) was also the most important one. In 1877 Russia and its ally Serbia came to the aid of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria in their rebellions against Turkish rule. The Russians attacked through Bulgaria, and after successfully concluding the Siege of Pleven they advanced into Thrace, taking Adrianople (now Edirne, Tur.) in January 1878. In March of that year Russia concluded the Treaty of San Stefano with Turkey. This treaty freed Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from Turkish rule, gave autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and created a huge autonomous Bulgaria under Russian protection. Britain and Austria-Hungary, alarmed by the Russian gains contained in the treaty, compelled Russia to accept the Treaty of Berlin (July 1878), whereby Russia''s military-political gains from the war were severely restricted. ***** Treaty of San Stefano (March 3 [Feb. 19, Old Style], 1878), peace settlement imposed on the Ottoman government by Russia at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78; it provided for a new disposition of the European provinces of the Ottoman Empire that would have ended any effective Turkish control over the Balkans if its provisions had not later been modified. Its most important provision established an independent Bulgarian principality, which included most of Macedonia and extended to the Danube and from the Aegean to the Black Sea. The independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was recognized. The boundaries of Serbia and Montenegro were extended so as to be contiguous, while Romania was compelled to cede southern Bessarabia to Russia, receiving the Dobrudja from Turkey in exchange. Bosnia-Hercegovina was to be autonomous. Parts of Asiatic Turkey were ceded to Russia, and the Ottoman sultan gave guarantees for the security of his Christian subjects. The treaty was opposed by Austria-Hungary, which disliked encouragement of Slav nationalism, and by the British, who feared the new Bulgarian state would become a Russian satellite and a threat to Istanbul. The treaty was modified by the terms of the Treaty of Berlin signed four months later on July 13. ***** Congress of Berlin (June 13-July 13, 1878), diplomatic meeting of the major European powers at which the Treaty of Berlin replaced the Treaty of San Stefano, which had been signed by Russia and Turkey (March 3, 1878) at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. Officially convoked by the Austrian foreign minister, Count Gyula Andrassy, the congress met in Berlin on June 13. Dominated by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the congress solved an international crisis caused by the San Stefano treaty by revising the peace settlement to satisfy the interests of Great Britain (by denying Russia the means to extend its naval power and by maintaining the Ottoman Empire as a European power) and to satisfy the interests of Austria-Hungary (by allowing it to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina and thereby increase its from: http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/romeo/russoturk1876.htm |
